Christmas and New Year Customs and Superstitions
 

Catherine Hudson

Christmas as we know it today has changed out of all recognition from years gone by when restricted incomes and very simple lifestyles were the order of the day. Most of the old customs and superstitions associated with that time of year have gone and it is difficult to understand how some of them originated. One can only surmise that living, as so many did, in isolated areas with little outside influence, every little thing that occurred would be noted and, that over a period of time, a series of happenings or coincidences would be associated with previous events and so myth became reality.

Christmas Fare

For good luck and good fortune in the coming year it was recommended that herrings, fresh or salted, be eaten as the first meal on Christmas Day. So when people returned from midnight Mass or church service they would have a meal of fish, salt and potatoes or a pig’s head and bacon.

The Goose was the traditional Christmas fare or, if less well-off, a chicken was substituted. Turkeys were introduced in the 17th century but were for a tong time restricted to the ‘gentry’. Towards the end of the 18th century both turkeys and geese sold for about one shilling and ducks and chickens for a few pence.

Tea was expensive and a rare luxury, and so was a special treat at Christmas. For those who could afford mince pies, it was the tradition to eat a pie each day for the 12 days of Christmas. It was believed this would help ward off illness in the coming year. The Christmas pudding was not like today’s plum pudding but was made from potatoes and bread and was boiled in a cloth (usually cut from a flour bag) suspended in a cooking pot over an open fire. It was also usual to give the animals extra food at Christmas.

One of the nicest of the old customs was that of ‘leaving the door on the latch’ when neighbours and travellers could feel free to call and share the food and drink, however meagre. Rhymers or Strawboys travelled around from house to house performing short plays or dancing and the pennies they collected were used for charity.

Christmas Candles

A lovely old custom which has not entirely died out is the placing of a lighted candle in the window. The first two lines from a 1920 poem read: “She set her lighted candle inside the window pane, the happy time of Christmas had come to earth again”.

The biggest candle that the family could afford was lit with great ceremony late on Christmas Eve, the oldest and the youngest members of the family holding the lighted taper. This custom is thought to have originated in Ireland in the 17th century. Imagine the scene, in the days before electricity, of a village or even a small rural community, its windows all aglow with flickering candles welcoming not only the birthday of Christ but, in a practical way, the footsore weary traveller or home comer. When the Famine led to mass emigration this custom was taken to America where it became very popular.

Customs connected with the candle varied from place to place but generally it was not extinguished until dawn. It was thought to bring great luck to have breakfast on Christmas Day by its light. In some places the candle was lit each evening over the 12 days of Christmas. On the night of 6 January a tin lid was filled with sand and 12 small candles arranged in a circle. They were lit before the evening meal and allowed to burn out. When they did, Christmas was over and everyone said, “May we all be alive and well this time next year’.

The Crib

Another surviving custom is the placing in homes and churches of figures representing Mary, Joseph, the infant Jesus, and the shepherds and animals in the stable at Bethlehem. The first crib in the 13th century was the idea of St Francis of Assisi when he used real people and animals to represent the scene. Since then, the crib, with its figures made from china, plaster, wood or even cardboard, is frequently displayed. The figures of the three Kings or Wise Men are added to the others on the Feast of the Epiphany on 6 January. This is also known as Old Christmas Day as this was the day on which Christmas was held before the calendar was changed. It was also called in Gaelic Nollaig na mBan as it was a special day for women. The woman of the house was waited on by the family as a reward for all the hard work she had done before and during Christmas.

Christmas Boxes, Cards, Trees and Decorations

Until the I 950s and before the advent of the supermarket, it was customary for family grocers to reward their customers with a ‘Christmas box’. This was sometimes a small hamper containing a large candle, an iced cake or biscuits. Most businesses routinely gave customers a calendar; this usually had a pouch on the front in which to keep letters. If the picture on the calendar was a pretty one, as it very often was, it would be kept safely and put in a simple frame to adorn the wall.

Christmas cards were first published in 1843 by an artist called Horseley. However, they were rarely sent or received, except by wealthy families, until well into the present century as they were much too expensive for common use. They were very often in the form of postcards.

The Christmas tree is a relatively new custom which was imported from Germany and Scandinavia. Yet it is said that, as far back as 900 AD, a group of Irish monks on a bleak mountainside in Alsace, feeling homesick and lonely one Christmas time, decorated a tree underneath which they sang hymns.

Great superstitions by pagans in ancient times were attached to both holly and ivy but these were later adopted by Christians for use at Christmas - the prickly holly as a symbol of Christ’s suffering and the red berries as a reminder of the blood he shed. It was also said that to hang up mistletoe brought happiness and good fortune - provided it did not touch the ground.

Animals

It was believed that the donkey and oxen knelt in their stables at midnight on Christmas Eve. This was thought to originate from the fact that it was a donkey that carried Mary to Bethlehem and the breath of the ox and donkey that kept the Infant warm. It was also believed that the cock crowed each night for three weeks before Christmas. This must have been believed centuries ago as Shakespeare writes in Hamlet “Wherein our Saviours birth is celebrated, The bird of dawning singeth all night long”.

If the cock crowed at midnight on Christmas Eve it was thought to be a very good omen. Bees are also believed to wake from hibernation at Christmas and hum or sing in celebration.

Old Sayings and Beliefs

A very old custom more common in Antrim and Kerry was of playing hurley with improvised sticks, barefoot on the sand.

The day on which Christmas falls was deemed to be of significance. If it fell on a Sunday it signified a windy winter and a good summer with peace throughout the land.

Monday and especially Tuesday were not considered good days for it to fall.
Wednesday meant a hard winter and good summer, but a bad year for ships.
Thursday and Friday also foretold hard and windy winters but good summers and harvests.
Saturday signified a severe winter and wet summer. Frost and snow at Christmas were welcomed as they were thought to be the sign of a mild spring. A new moon on Christmas Eve was also considered lucky. Old sayings include:

• A green Christmas fills the Churchyard.
• When the blackbird sings before Christmas, she will cry at Candlemas.
• If ducks can swim at Halloween, at Christmas they will slide.

New Year

An old custom was to open the door of the house at the last stroke of midnight. on New Year’s Eve to allow the old year out and the new year in. New Year superstitions abound with ‘don’ts’. On New Year’s Day:

• Don’t wear shoes which have a hole in them or financial problems will stay with you the whole year long.
• Don’t wear new clothes on this day.
• Don’t sweep the floor, else you’ll sweep a friend away.
• Don’t do any washing, as throwing out water on this day is considered unlucky.
• Don’t remove the ashes from the fire or take a burning ember from one house to another.
• Don’t let the fire go out.
• Don't make any money deals as money made on New Years Day will only bring bad luck.
• Don’t carry any debts over into the New Year.
• Don’t pay out any money on the first Monday of the New Year.
• Don't poke a neighbours fire.

With such a volume of things not allowed it might be safer to hibernate for the day! But only after you clean your chimney as this will bring you luck. To find a lump of coal, or for someone (preferably a dark haired man) to bring it to your home (‘first footing’) is considered good fortune but beware a red haired lady as your first visitor, or someone whose eyebrows meet across the nose.

A custom specific to the Mourne area was that no flesh meat was eaten on New Years Day as it was believed this would safeguard the family from infections in the in coming year. Another local custom was of young people bringing ‘wisps’ (which were small bundles of straw often taken from the crib) around the houses very early on New Year’s Day and saying, “A penny a wisp and a happy New Year” as they handed it to the householder.

A custom which died out in the 18th century involved opening the Bible at random and picking a verse with a pin hoping to find some guidance for the year ahead. King Charles I is reported to have done this and ‘pinpointed’ a verse from Numbers which referred to the loss of a Kingdom. This was an understatement as he eventually lost a great deal more - his head!

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Old Time Kilkeel Fishing Boats
(With kind permission from the Mourne Observer)

"We wur joost talkin' about the oul' boats, Tam, and their skippers," said Hugh. "Sure ye knowed them all. Cud ye gie us their names?"
"Och, man, A cud that," replied Tom, and he then proceeded to reel off an exhaustive list of boats of olden days, lovely, lyrical names most of them, which came so trippingly off the trumpet tongue of this grand old seaman that I felt intrigued as I listed them. I have no doubt that this list of names of the Kilkeel and Annalong craft and their skippers of a past generation will be of more than passing interest.

Here they are, with the skippers' names in brackets:

The Saint Patrick" (Pat Curran), "The Mary Joseph" (Bob Wilson), "The Jane Gordon" (W. Douglas), "The Mermaid" (Robert McKnight), "The Kingfisher" (George Ballance), "The Jolly Tar" (Archie Mackintosh), "The Minnie" (Owen McConville), "The Arathusa." (Pat Cousins), "The Thermople" (Pat Collins), "The Never Can Tell" (Johnny Cousins), "The St. Joseph," the oldest one of the lot (Tom McGlue), "The Express" (Willie John McKee), "The Moss Rose" (Johnny McKee), "The Cissie" (Willie Ballance), "The Queen Bee" (James Donnan), "The Emu" (J. Chambers), "The Good Design" (J. Cousins), "The Village Girl" (Johnny McAdam, Annalong), "The Guiding Star" (Harry McBride), "The Victory" (Johnny McBride), "The Ellen Constance" (Jamey Quinn), "The Maid of Mourne" (Patrick Curran), "The Cypress" (Charlie Cassidy), "The Mary Sanders" (Willie Magennis), "The Jane Russell" (John Collins), "The Snowdrop" (Willie McDonald), "The Wanderer" (Hugh Green, sen), "The St. Mary" (Mick reen), "The Wizard" (John Sloan), "The Willie" (Jim Chambers), "The Imelda Jane" (James McKnight), "The Jennie Gardiner" (John Cunningham and Pat Collins), "The Shane's Castle" (Harry McBride), "The Winifred" (Tom O'Brien, Dunavil), "The Uncle Tom" (Archie Mackintosh), "The Water Lily" (Willie Cousins), "The Sarah" (Tommy Edgar), "The Children's Friend" (James Ferguson), "The Frances Russell" (Bob Cousins), "The Minnie," name changed to "Jane Russell" (Owen McConville and later Joe Collins), "The Rival" (Robert Young), "The Lady Nora" (owned and skippered by His Lordship The Earl of Kilmorey, who was the first man to put an engine in a fishing boat in Kilkeel), "The Ida Shannon" (John Edgar), "The Margaret Ann" (Frank McDonald), "The Nellie Woods" (Frank McDonald), "The Mary Joseph" (now skippered by young Tommy Curran, Kilkeel), "The Water Lily", now owned by Robert Hanna (formerly skippered by Willie Cousins), "The Mary Ann McCrum" (Johnny McCartan), "The Manx Heather" (skipper not known), "The Isobel" lskipper not known), "The Mary Sanders" (Tom McDonald), "The Ida Shannon" (Robert McKee), "The Annie Moore (Andy Coffey), "The Ida Johnston (Charlie McGinnis), "The Soggarth Aroon" (skipper's name not remembered), "The Antoinette" (J. Weddock), "The Atlantic" (skipper not remembered), "The Flirt" - `A don't min' the name o' her skipper," Tom added. "Well," rejoined Hugh, "if the name is anything to go be, that wan wuz boun' to have had more than wan skipper."

Kilkeel Pier

Cutting of the First sod of new Pier

Belfast News Letter, Thursday, June 13^th. 1865

The ceremony of cutting the first sod of this much desired structure was gone through last Monday, in the presence of a vast number of spectators, among them we noticed, Rev. J. F. Close, Rev. George Maguire, P. P. , Rev. A. Dudgeon, Rev. B. Clarke, C. C. ,J. K. Thompson Esq. J. P., Lieutenant Collins, J. Alexander, Esq. Belfast Bank. Kilkeel, J. Q. Henry Esq.,Captain James, Joseph McKelvie, Esq.  Belfast, John McGowan Esq, Belfast, J. H. Reid, Esq, Q.C.B., Messrs Henry Vaughan, William Floyd, Joseph Clarke, James Curragh, J. S. Moore,  Jun., George Gordon, Robert Thompson, S. Thompson, Neal Clarke, &c. The splendid amateur band from Warrenpoint added much to the amusement of the day, at two o’clock the procession headed by the band, proceeded to the shore, where a most imposing sight presented itself, a number of fishing luggers lay at anchor off the site of the new pier with flags flying, and their crews showing by their loud and oft repeated cheering that the work of the day was one of the outmost importance to them. As most of the herring fishing is prosecuted off the coast of Mourne, on the motion of Mr. Curragh, seconded by Mr .R. Thompson it was proposed that Mr. H. Vaughan do cut the first sod of the new pier at Kilkeel, Mr. Floyd then handed him a spade, Mr. Vaughan in a neat and appropriate speech, explained the object for which they were then assembled, and amid loud cheers, pronounced the first sod turned, A sailing match of skiffs followed, which was well contested, four boats started, “The Alabama,” Mr. H. Martin, owner, “The Annie of the Bay”, Mr. Vaughan, owner, “The Pilot”,Mr.A. Miller, owner and “The Phantom”, Mr.Curragh, owner, there being a good breeze, the race was well contested, the boats came in as follows, 1^st. “The Phantom”, 2nd.“The Annie of  the Bay”, 3^rd. “The Alabama”, “The Pilot “giving up the race. The sports of the day were brought to a close by a grand display of fireworks, and our little village was mantled in its accustomed quiet by eleven o’clock

Report of works executed during the year 1866

 The works for the construction of this pier were commenced in the Autumn of 1865 by a contractor, but he having failed in their execution, after making but little progress, the works were resumed by days work, under the superintendence of a clerk of works on the 1^st. April 1866, and were continued with all possible energy during the remainder of the year. The outer portion of the pier, a length of 250feet was erected to a height of 14 feet, or the level of high water springs and at the pier head, 60 feet of this length was raised to a height of 18 and a half feet, but before this portion  could be properly closed, this extra height of 4 and a half feet was washed down by a heavy sea, 65 feet of the inner quay wall was erected to a height of 18 and a half feet, and the bearing wall and coping of the overfall, for a length of 50 feet erected, the new channel from inside the beach to 20 feet above the overfall was excavated to a breadth of 70 feet, and to within about 8 feet of the proposed depth.

 The construction of this pier was progressing rapidly, until the month of August, when considerable injury was done by a storm from the south east, breaking over the unfinished work, the injury was quickly repaired, but only again to be disturbed by a succeeding storm, progress to the outer portion of the work was suspended for the winter, and the inner portion proceeded with, quantity of work executed – 3,500 cubic yards excavation in gravel, 2,880 cubic yards rubble masonry set, 14,618 cubic feet Ashlar dressed unset, 560 cubic yards rubble stone unset.

James, J. Boylan,  C .E.,  Howth, March 5^th. 1867

Kilkeel Pier, Commissioners of Public Works, Ireland, 1866/67

 The contractor for this pier having failed to proceed with the works in a satisfactory manner, the board took them into their own hands and proceeded with the execution of the works last April, considerable progress was made during the summer, but the severity of the season prevented much being done during the winter months, the works are now being proceeded with.

 Kilkeel Pier, Works executed between 1^st. Jan. 1868 and March 31^st. 1869

 This pier was constructed under the Board by daily labour, under a resident clerk of works, and was completed in accordance with the original design and within the original estimate, on the 1^st. of June last. It was unfortunately visited on the 12^th. August last by  a most extraordinary mountain flood which washed over the entire surface of the upper work and tore away the weir, the greater portion of the north retaining wall, and undercut the quay wall, of the pier in two places, and at the same time depositing a large quantity of gravel and stones in the harbour, since the injury to the pier has been repaired, and most of the gravel and stones removed, but the small amount available for this purpose being expended the works were suspended on the 1^st. March last.

 Thursday 23^rd. Nov. 1876

 Disastrous fire at Kilkeel pier, on Wednesday morning, about one o’clock, some fishermen went to the pier for the purpose of seeing after the safety of their boats, discovered extensive damage to the engine house and workshop belonging to Mr. Painter, shipbuilder was on fire, the alarm was promptly given and constable Moore and a party of the constabulary at once went to the scene of the fire, and with many willing hands prevented the fire from spreading to an adjoining shed, were there were four new Luggers ready to be launched, the fire was that near to them that the heat caused the tar to come loose at the seams, the engine house, and workshop was completely destroyed and everything in them, the damage was estimated at about £1000, it was not known how the fire started.

 Friday October 19^th. 1883

Improvement of Kilkeel and Annalong Fishery Harbours

 The case of Kilkeel was taken up and the Rev. O’B. Pratt Church of Ireland curate, Kilkeel, addressed the court at the request of those interested, he reviewed the origin of the present harbour , and showed how, owing to the loss of life and damage to boats then in use, the inhabitants put their hands in their pockets and produced the formation of a harbour, the result was immediately apparent, and though the fishing population of Kilkeel had then no first class boats, they now had 35 of a value of £24,000, the only drawback in the way of further enterprise was the want of harbour accommodation, he alluded further to the facilities which existed for fishing, as the ground was within easy reach of Kilkeel, and also to the fact that steamers running from Greenore took the fish from Greencastle, to which place in the season upwards of twenty carts every day plied with fish from Kilkeel. Besides the men belonging to the town, the harbour was used by upwards of 300 vessels from Scotland, the Isle of Man and the East coast of Ireland.
Evidence was given respecting the defective nature of the present harbour and its suitability as a fishing station.
Mr. J.Q. Henry, J.P. agent to the Earl of Kilmorey, stated that the people of that neighbourhood had, in one shape or another contributed a sum of £3,000 towards the construction of the existing harbour, he thought that should be taken into consideration by the commissioners in deciding the extent of the grant which they should make, Mr. Johnston said with regard to the scope of the measure which had been passed into law, people believed that the commissioners were bound to make a free grant and the sooner their minds were cleared of that idea the better, in some cases for instance, the localities were poor, they had the power to give a free grant, but Kilkeel was not one of those places to which a gratuitous grant would be made, he would therefore recommend them to make up their mind to state what they were prepared to give.

 New Improvement Scheme for Kilkeel Harbour

A £65,000 scheme will improve security and counteract vandalism at Kilkeel harbour. It will include the installation of CCTV cameras, fencing, an electrically powered sliding gate to control vehicle access to the north pier and a manually operated turnstile system for pedestrians.

Work is expected to commence at the beginning of September and should last 6 weeks. The work is the first phase of a scheme to improve security at the busy harbour.

A major programme of work to upgrade facilities at Kilkeel, underpinned by the Reinvestment and Reform Initiative and EU funding, is currently ongoing.

Part of the re-development programme that is ongoing at the harbour includes the installation of improved sea defences. This is causing alarm with the local Councillors as young children are putting their lives at risk by indulging in a potentially deadly pastime at the south pier of the harbour.

As part of this scheme the construction company of McLaughlin & Harvey is removing the old 'rock amour' installed in front of the south pier to lessen the impact of waves crashing against it, and putting in its place new high-tech 'Core-Loc' units which were developed by the US army. The rock armour lies at the foot of the harbour where the children are diving in. It is constantly being dug up and shifted around as the operation to install the new improved sea defences continues.

As a result jumping off the wall into the sea below is extremely dangerous. One day there may be no significant rock armour where the children are diving into the water and it would appear to be perfectly safe. The next day, because of the ongoing construction work jagged rocks could be lurking just below the surface of the water.

Kilkeel Harbour Master, Michael Young, said the situation was particularly hazardous when the tide was in. Mr Young said staff at the harbour had witnessed as young as eight and nine years of age jumping of the harbour wall, where the work involving moving the rock armour is taking place.

Swimming and diving are expressly forbidden under the harbour's byelaws and the Northern Ireland Fishery Harbour Authority, which is responsible for Kilkeel harbour has made it clear the practice is unsafe at any time. Mr Young said the harbour had never been more dangerous for unsupervised children than at present, with heavy lorries and machinery operating on the site all day. Mr Young is appealing to parents to make sure their children "stay away and stay safe".

School Register of Moneydarragh National School March 1898, (part of)

Kilkeel Workhouse names of infants born 1872. 1873. 1874

Return of Infants born in the workhouse and during the years 1872, 1873,and 1874

More information on Kilkeel workhouse

Emigration of Orphan Girls to Australia,

From Workhouses, 1890, Report

Kilkeel, Numbers of emigrants sent out, to date 14th. July 1849, 4. numbers since sent out 7. total number of emigrants sent out since the spring of 1848, 11

The children whose names are given in the several returns for Kilkeel Union were, with their parents, admitted frequently during the years shown, but only one admission has been given.

On the 25th. March 1842 there were 2 inmates of the Kilkeel Workhouse classed as Insane the annual cost of keeping them was £4. 4 shillings and 9 pence

Maintenance and clothing of paupers for the year, £101. 19 and 11 and a halfpence

1842 24th March, Mr. Gulson

Letter from the clerk of the Union to the assistant commissioner

Iam directed by the board of guardians of the Kilkeel Union to call your attention to the bad state of the house owing to the walls taking wet and to request you will not allow the contractor to be paid the balance of his account until it is put in a complete state of repair, and i have also further directed to state to you, that it was only on the faith of your getting this done that the deed of change was signed yesterday placing the 1,000 at the disposal of the Poor Law Commissioners,

Reply from the architect 31st May 1842.To Mr. Murphy and Mr. Gulson

Surveyed the building 28th March 1842, the walls do not in some portion resist the weather, but the work has been  very carefully performed, and much more labour given to it than usual with rubble masonry. It will be re pointed, or if it is insufficient it must be cemented, arrangments have been made accordingly.

Minutes of Guardians 18th. May 1842.

Resolved that it is important that the workhouse premises should be finally enclosed, and the gates put up, which cannot be done until the gate piers are altered and the commissioners are requested to order the boundery wall to be inspected, which the guardians consider to be very deficient in many places as to workmanship and durability.

Complaints to the contractors by the Pennethorne report on workhouses.1844

The wet penetrates very much through the walls and through the roofs, for want of lead flashings, and at the ventilators. This is a well built house, the contractor has dressed some of his work too much, in imating cut stone masonary, and these parts have have been most damp, the dampness however is now being remedied

Extract from Guardians minutes 13th. March 1844

On Mr. Moore's motion coming before the board to provide a fever hospital for this Union.

Dr's McIlwaine and Reid were examined by the board and Mr. Gilbert to prove the necessity there exists for providing a fever hospital. The plans furnished by the poor law commissioners being examined by the board, it was resolved, that the board consider that the estimated cost of providing a fever hospital is too large for this Union, and as there is too much accommodation in the hospital attached to the workhouse, for the number of paupers in the workhouse, that the clerk be directed to apply to the Poor Law Commissioners to allow the two wings of the present hospital to be taken for fever patients, and to add another story thereto, the entrance to be from the back of the building, and the communication with the remainder of the hospital to be stopped.

Mr. Gilbert stated that the Poor Law Commissioners had an objection to allowing any part of the hospitals attached to be used for fever hospitals, but the board considered that under the peculiar circumstances of this Union being small and the numbers of paupers in the workhouse being few, they would make an exception in this case.

Workhouse rules and regulations which applied to most workhouses

Kilkeel, Co. Down

[Records] [Bibliography] [Links]

Kilkeel Poor Law Union was formally declared on the 29th July 1839 and covered an area of 127 square miles. Its operation was overseen by an elected Board of Guardians, 16 in number, representing its 10 electoral divisions as listed below (figures in brackets indicate numbers of Guardians if more than one):

Co. Down: Ballykeel, Bryansford (2), Fofanny (2), Green Castle (2), Kilkeel (2), Killowen, Maghera, Mourne Park (2), Mullartown, Rosstrevor (2).

The Board also included 5 ex-officio Guardians, making a total of 21. The Guardians met each week on Wednesday at noon.

The population falling within the Union at the 1831 census had been 26,833 with divisions ranging in size from Killowen (population 1,163) to Kilkeel itself (3,544).

The new Kilkeel Union workhouse was erected in 1840-1 on a 7.5-acre site at the north side of Newry Street in Kilkeel. Designed by the Poor Law Commissioners' architect George Wilkinson, the building was based on one of his standard plans to accommodate 300 inmates. Its construction cost £4,050 plus £767 for fittings etc. The workhouse was declared fit for the reception of paupers on 16th August 1841 and admitted its first inmates on 1st September. The workhouse location and layout are shown on the 1930 map below.

Kilkeel workhouse site, 1930.
 

The buildings followed Wilkinson's typical layout. An entrance and administrative block at the south-west contained a porter's room and waiting room at the centre with the Guardians' board room on the first floor above.

The main accommodation block had the Master's quarters at the centre, with male and female wings to each side. At the rear, a range of single-storey utility rooms such as bakehouse and washhouse connected through to the infirmary and idiots' wards via a central spine containing the chapel and dining-hall.

During the famine in the mid-1840s, a 40-bed fever hospital was erected at the east of the site. A dispensary was located on the roadside to the east of the workhouse.
 

At the 1901 census, the population of the Union was 19,131.

The fever hospital survives as part of Mourne District Hospital which opened in 1927.

Records

• Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, 66 Balmoral Avenue, Belfast BT9 6NY Northern Ireland. Holdings include: Guardians' minute books (1839-1944); Dispensary minute books (1852-98); Indoor relief lists (1927-43); etc.

Bibliography

• The Workhouses of Ulster by Michael H Gould, 1983.
• The Workhouses of Ireland by John O'Connor (Anvil Books, 1995)

Links

• None.

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This page is copyright Peter Higginbotham / www.workhouses.org.uk. Last updated on 13-Apr-2007